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Pyuis Grammar
'Alphabet and orthography' †Sound depends usually on position in the morpheme Allophones The sounds below may have a certain phonetic value, however, these given sounds are allophones and may are only pronounced this way in certain dialects. *lj = /ʎ/ *tj = /c/ *dj = /ɟ/ *sj/syj = /ɕ/ *zj/ẑj = /ʑ/ Voiced and voicless consonants Some consonants have voiced and voiceless varients. These will be explained later. 'Grammar' Derivational morphology The suffixes -u and -i indicate that a word is a adjective or adverb respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by adding these suffixes to the root, just as -ly derives adverbs from adjectives in English: From kipom (a pig), we get kipomu (pig like) and kipomi (in a pig like manner). Plurals suffixes in Pyuis depend on the case, however all adjectives that describecribe plural nouns take the suffix -su. For example: "Kipom syumum'u'" meaning a "large/big pig", if made plural would be "Kipom'aj '''syumum'su'", meaning "large/big pigs". Compound words can be formed by adding two roots together, then adding the noun, adjective or adverb endings. For example, the word for "pig swill" is "Lonimkipom" *Lonim (food) + kipom (pig) *. Pyuis has agglutinative morphology; so morphemes can be strung together to form complex words. Pyuis compound words take a head-dependent stem-final arrangement, the opposite of English. For example; *Cådzatgam = Student; cådzat (human)-gam(study), therefore "human-study"("study" is the dependent changes the meaning of the head "human") *Gamcådzat = Study of humans; gam(study)-cådzat(human), therefore "study-human" ("human" is the dependent changes the meaning of the head "study") 'Definite article' Pyuis has one article, the definite article. It is used to show that the noun is definitive, identifiable to the listener/reader. "The" is the definite article in English, and the Pyuis definite article is like "The" in English. However, the definite article in Pyuis declines according to case, which will be explained later on. The nominative (dictionary) form of the article is "ƶak", The definitive article is used less in Pyuis as in English, and is used when refering to a partocular object which was previously mentioned. *Kipomo = a pig *Ƶak kipom' = the pig '''Superlatives and comparatives Pronouns 'Determiners' Determiners decline according to their case and number in Pyuis, they are placed before the noun. Although few nouns have irregular declinations in Pyuis, all determiners decline in an irregular way. Possessives Verbs 'Infinitive' The infinitive is the basic, unconjugated form of a verb, sometimes called the name of the verb. In English the infinitive is the word "to" followed by a verb: to talk, to see, to return. The Akebarian infinitive is formed by adding the suffix -iar to the end of the verb. 'Conjugations' Tenses in Pyus are formed by removing the infinitive suffix and replacing it with the appropriate suffix. There are three tenses in Pyuis, past, present and future. Verbs conugate according to person. Italics ''= applies to some irregular verbs '''Bold '= used if the verb stem ends in a voiceless consonant (P T S C/Ƶ Tsy Sy F K Sj Kj) Causative The Causative is a form of a verb that indicates that a subject causes someone or something else to do or be something. It is formed by adding the prefixes below instead of the standard conjugations In English, it can be translated as "A causes B to (verb)". Also, Pyuis has no verb for English verbs such as "feed" or "kill", so these would be "cause to eat" and "cause to die" in Pyuis. 'Indirect and direct objects of causative' The causative verbs in Pyuis typically have a direct object, and sometimes an indirect object, which are marked with the accusative and dative respectfully (this will be discussed later). In the sentence "I cause you to be a dog", in Pyuis, "you" would be accusative as it is treat as the direct object, and "dog" would be dative as it is treat as the indirect object. Therefore, in Pyuis it would be "sredcebel ẑok'eg' zigådz'ẑev'o". 'Moods' Moods are used to signal modality. There are ten moods in Pyuis. Moods are added as prefixes to the verb. 'Desirative mood' The desirative mood is used to express a desire or want to do a certain action. The prefix trid- is added to the verb. Trit is used if the follow consonant is voiceless. The Causative form of the verb can also be made desirative, for example "ton tridsredgafar źokcic" means "I desire to feed you", however, if the causative affix is placed before the desirative affix, the meaning of the sentence is changed. So to say "I cause you to want to eat", it would be "ton sredtridgafar źokcic". The causative works this way for all verb moods. 'Necessitative mood' The necessitative mood expresses the need to do a certain action. The prefix sdol- is added to the verb. 'Potential mood' The Potential mood is a mood of probability indicating that, in the opinion of the speaker, the action or occurrence is considered likely #vjem - Speculative, maybe #dzrev/dzref - "should" #prek/preg = "able to" #vil = conditional #dzut/dzud = subjective #het/hed = dubiative #kreẑ/kresy - prohibitive #nyåt/nyåd - "probably" 'Adverb tenses' Adverbs are inflicted in the past and future in Akebarian, however, this only happens when the adverb modifies a verb, and does not happen if the adverb modifies an adjective. The inflection used depends on weather the adverb stem ends in a voiced or voiceless consonant *Maj'el' bekrad'i' - I run quickly *Maj'ol' bekrad'dri' - I ran quickly *Maj'uẑån' bekrad'zli' - I am going to run quickly *Maj'el '''syeki = I run successfully *Maj'ol''' syek'tri' - I ran successfully *Maj'uẑån' syek'sli '- I am going to run successfully 'Aspects' Aspects in Akebarian are marked with suffixes. Below is a list of aspects and their approriate suffixes. Aspects, as can be seen, are marked with the suffix å. The first vowel on these suffixes is in brackets as it is only added if the conjugated verb ends in a consonant. *Perfect +(i)gå * Continuous +(å)jå * terminative +(e)råtå * Durative - (å)rgå * Prospective (soon) - (o)ljå * Defective - (a)krenå * Accidental - (i)sendrå * Inchoative - (e)veskå * Iterative - (a)vredå Supine The supine is a verbal noun used in Pyuis, verbs of motion to indicate purpose, the Pyuis supine verb combines both the verb and noun in one word, and can appear in three tenses. The supine is formed in the following way: ḩad-infinitive verb-supine noun. For example, "I walked in order to help an animal" would be "Bezel ḩad tumiar bujenẑde", with "ḩad tumiar bujenẑde" being the supine noun (ḩad = in order to, tumiar = to help, bujen = animal, ẑde = present supine). Like most Pyuis inflections, the consonants in the inflection change if the last consonant in the noun is voiceless. Determiners of supine nouns take the accusative case. Supine tense The supine can appear in all three tenses. The supine verb does not need to follow the tense of the verb which it indicates the purpose of. For example, "Bezol ḩad tumiar bujenẑdje" means "I walked to help an animal", and since both verbs are in past tense, it shows that the action of walking is complete, and that an animal has been helped. But "Bezel ḩad tumiar bujenẑde" also means "I walked to help an animal", but since the supine is in the present tense, it shows that the although action of walking is complete, but an animal is currently being helped. And "Bezol ḩad tumiar bujenẑto" means "I walked to help an animal" but the supine is in the future tense, so it means that an animal is not yet helped, therefore "I walked to help an animal in the future". The supine can also appear in the plural by the addition of the suffix "m", for example "Bezel ḩad tumiar bujenẑdem" 'Cases' Pyuis has many cases. 'Interrogatives' Interrogatives are used to ask questions in Pyuis. Unlike in English, the word order does not change when a statement is turned into a question. In Pyuis the interrogative is placed before the statement to turn the statement into a question. Pyuis interrogatives are based partially on Esperanto interrogatives. Yes–no interrogatives Yes–no questions are formed with the interrogative vec at the beginning of the clause, or by placing it before the noun which the question is being asked about. For example, the interrogative equivalent of the statement quipomƶak cebje syumumu "The pig is large" is Veƶ quipomƶak cebje syumumu'? "Is the pig large?" The subject and the verb are not inverted to form questions as in English and many other European languages. As mentioned above, interrogatives can be placed before the noun the question is being asked about, therefore change the meaning of the question depending on their word order. For example, in the question "vec ẑurukosredginyir ƶadzåtegaj?" = "did the bear kill people", "vec" is placed before ẑuruko (bear), therefore the question is being asked about the bear, thus implying "was it the bear that killed people?". However, in the sentence "Ẑuruk sredginyir vec ƶadzåtegaj?", "vec" is placed "ƶadzåtegaj" (people ~ accusative case), therefore the question is being asked about the people, thus implying "was it people that the bear killed". Other interrogatives Pyuis has several more interrogatives to ask more detail about the question, the same rules mentioned above also apply for these interrogatives. *cumon - what, which *bemov - where, in which place *dån - why, for what reason *syasyum - how, by which way/method *nyetem - how much/how many *vec - yes/no *syud - in what condition/state *vjevem - what type? *vẑåk - when, at which time? Months *Dẑanuyar *Febraz *Murzod *Ḩaprel *Majz *Dẑenvo *Ḩasta *Selvo *Ghar *Doghad *Goldo *Dizimber Days *Mundjo *Tsyuzdjo *Wedenzdjo *Turzdjo *Fraydjo *Såtdjo *Sundjo Numbers * 0 Nyul * 1 Monov * 2 Bera * 3 Danye * 4 Tim * 5 Remec * 6 Hog * 7 Dzeras * 8 Ḩelkauy * 9 Dos * 10 Blos * 100 Dvasy * 1,000 Milås * 1,000,000 Miljon * 1,000,000,000 Felkas * 1,000,000,000,000 Biljon